Unmeasured confounding variables are a common problem in drawing causal inferences in observational studies. A theorem is given which in certain circumstances allows the researcher to draw conclusions ...

If there is only one unmeasured confounding variable on the graph, then nonincreasing or nondecreasing average causal effects suffice to draw conclusions about the direction of the bias.

The extent to which a researcher devises a solid experiment, controls for confounding variables, and executes the procedure as planned determines a finding’s internal validity.

Conformity to morality is often mistaken as a panacea for societal issues. Cognitions of reality represent the confounding variable responsible for moral attribution.